Encyklopedia

Fikcyjne encyklopedie

• Jorge Luis Borges: klasyfikacja chińskiej encyklopedii

Encyklopedia a słownik

• "Entries in encyclopedias tend to be longer than those in dictionaries,"
• "encyclopedias usually cover just nouns, while dictionaries cover all the parts of speech."
• "Some say a dictionary cannot be translated into another language, whereas an encyclopedia can be."
• "Dictionaries also tend to exclude propoer nouns (people, places), unless in appendixes."
• Ale: "Law dictionaries, biographical dictionaries, gardening dictionaries—all are really encyclopedias. And some encyclopedic information tends to find its way into even the general-purpose dictionaries: the proper names Lothario or Einstein have come to serve as synonyms for lover and genius , and in that sense they need to be defined rather than discussed."

Porządek alfabetyczny

• XI w. wprowadzenie porządku alfabetycznego, bizantyjska encyklopedia ‘Suidas’; ‘Suidas solution’
• 1500 - Erazm z Rotterdamu, Adagia - lista przysłów w porządku alfabetycznym; przeporządkowana tematycznie w 1596
• d’Alembert: zasada encyklopedyczna vs zasada słownikowa, "As d’Alembert pointed out in his introduction to the Encyclopédic (above, 115), there are essentially two ways of arranging information in encyclopaedias (in the West at least). In the first place, what he called the ‘encyclopaedic principle’, in other words thematic organization, the traditional tree of knowledge. In the second place, what he called the ‘dictionary principle’, in other words alphabetical order of topics."
• przykłady: "Beyerlinck’s Theatre of Human Life (1631), a rearrangement of Zwinger’s thematic encyclopaedia; Louis Moréri’s Great Historical Dictionary (1674), which went through many editions; and Pierre Bayle’s riposte to Moréri, the Critical and Historical Dictionary (1697). Apparently Bayle even wrote the articles in his dictionary in alphabetical order."
• poł. XVIII w. Samuel Richardson tworzy najstarszy znany spis dzieł literackich.
• biblioteki zaczynają stosować porządek alfabetyczny: "By the end of the century, libraries were beginning to catalogue their holdings on cards (originally the backs of playing cards) so as to permit the insertion of new items in alphabetical order"
• 1697 - Barthélemy d’Herbelot, Oriental Library, porządek alfabetyczny, ale autor się usprawiedliwia
• 1771 - Encyclopaedia Britannica, preface: ‘the folly of attempts to communicate science under the various technical terms arranged in an alphabetical order’
• "Alphabetical order saves time."
• Harold Innis krytycznie: "‘encyclopaedias may tear knowledge apart and pigeonhole it in alphabetical boxes’."
• "Medieval and Renaissance encyclopaedias were designed to be read rather than consulted (though they might, like Reisch’s volume, include an alphabetical index)."
• "As Leibniz pointed out, the system had the advantage of presenting the same material from different points of view."

Etymologia

• "The term came to be applied to certain books because they were organized in the same way as the system of education, whether in order to assist students in institutions of higher education or to offer a substitute for these institutions, a do-it-yourself course."

Historia europejska

Starożytność

• 2000 B.C.E. Amenemope, A Text to Dispel Ignorance about Everything That Exists
• Plinius, Historia naturalna
• Speuzyp, zaginiona kolekcja cytatów z Platona i Arystotelesa
• Cato the Censor, Encyklopedia, zaginiona
• Marcus Terentius Varro (116-24 B.C.E): "Three of Varro’s seventy-four known works are interesting to readers of reference books. One is the Imagines — Images or Portraits —collecting seven hundred biographical sketches on prominent Greek and Roman figures. Another is Antiquitates rerum humanarum et divinarum libri XLI , or Human and Divine Antiquities in Forty-One Books , which opens with six books on human affairs, six more on locations throughout the Italian peninsula, another six covering the history of Rome, and six on things, with the rest of the work devoted to divine subjects. Most of what we know about the lost Antiquitates comes from Augustine’s attacks on it in his City of God . 6 And Varro’s most encyclopedic work of all was Disciplinarum libri IX , or Nine Books of Disciplines , 7 one for each of the seven liberal arts, with additions for medicine and architecture. Not enough of this book survives for us to say much about it, but we can gather from the surviving fragments what sort of writer Varro was."
• IV w. ne - Nonius Marcellus, Compendious Doctrine (porządek alfabetyczny)
• V w. ne. - Martianus Capella, Liber de nuptiis Mercurii et Philologiae

Średniowiecze

• VI w. - Flavius Marcus Aurelius Cassiodorus Senator, Institutiones divinarum et sæcularium litterarum
  • publikacja 543–55 C.E.
  • pracował dla Theodoric the Great
  • próba pogodzenia pogańskiej filozofii i chrześcijańskiego objawienia
  • struktura: Book 1, religious practice and reading the Bible; book 2, the seven liberal arts
  • 28 tys. słów
• Isidore of Seville (560-636), Etymologiarum libri XX
  • struktura: 20 books: (1) grammar, (2) rhetoric, (3) mathematics (including music, geometry, and astronomy), (4) medicine, (5) law, (6) order of Scripture, (7) God and angels, (8) faith and the church, (9) languages, civics, family relations, (10) miscellaneous terms in alphabetical order, (11) human beings, (12) animals, (13) the four elements, (14) the earth, (15) cities, fields, and roads, (16) minerals, (17) agriculture, (18) war and games, (19) ships and trades, (20) food and domestic implements
  • publikacja: 636 C.E.
  • VOLUMES: 20
  • ENTRIES: 463 numbered or lettered chapters, often subdivided
  • 191 tys. słów
• Vincent z Beauvais, Speculum or ‘Mirror’ (reprinted in Venice, 1590; Douai, 1624): 4 części: natura, doktryna, moralność, historia;

Wiek XV

• wynalazek druku miał 2 skutki dla rozwoju encyklopedii
  • większa dostępność, lepsza czytalność
  • niezbędny przewodnik po rosnącym gąszczu wiedzy drukowanej

Wiek XVI

• Gregor Reisch, 1502: 12 ksiąg: trivium, quadrivium, filozofia naturalna, filozofia moralna
• Giorgio Valla, 1501: trivium, poezja, etyka, historia

Wiek XVII

• pojawia się porządek alfabetyczny
• Alsted, Encyclopaedia (1630)
• Hungarian Encyclopaedia of Apáczai Csere Janos (1653)
• 1677 - Johann Jacob Hofmann, Lexicon universale historico-geographico-chronologico-poetico-philologicum
• 1697 - Pierre Bayle, Dictionnaire historique et critique
  • "a gloriously eccentric exploration of people considered important by the philosophical and political revolutionary Pierre Bayle"
  • "The Dictionnaire enjoyed the two sure signs of influence: rapid sales among the public, and rapid censorship by church and state."

Wiek XVIII

Ogólne trendy

• rozrost encyklopedii: "The German journalist Johann Georg Krünitz compiled an economic encyclopaedia in sixteen volumes (1771-2). Zedler’s Lexikon ran to thirty-two volumes, the French Encyclopédic to thirtyfive, and its Swiss rival the Dictionnaire raisonné des connaissances humaines to fifty-eight volumes (1770-80). Krünitz’s work was regularly updated and expanded to reach 242 volumes by 1858."
• reakcja, encyklopedie przenośne: "This very expansiveness generated a need for the complementary opposite, the ‘portable’ reference book like the Lexicon genealogicum portatile (1727), the Dictionnaire portatif des prédicateurs (1757), Dictionnaire domestique portatif (1762), Dictionnaire portatif d’ltalie (1777), Dictionnaire portatif des femmes (1788) and the Dictionnaire géographique portatif (1790). Attempts were made to cater for general readers and to sell them encyclopaedias on the grounds that it was impossible to read the newspaper without their aid, or even to converse intelligently (hence the idea of the Konversationslexikon)"
• profesjonalizacja tworzenia encyklopedii, angażownie pracowników: "Reynier Leers of Rotterdam, the publisher of Furetiére’s Dictionary (1689), a one-man job competing with the official dictionary of French organized by the Académie Française, paid the refugee scholar Pierre Bayle a salary to support him while he was working on his Historical and Critical Dictionary (1697). In similar fashion, the German polyhistor Carl Ludovlci worked full-time for Zedler. Diderot’s contract of 1747 specified that he was to receive 7,200 livres for editing the Encyclopédie, while d’Alembert, who did less of the work, was to receive 2,400."
• pojawienie się kolegiów redaktorskich: ". Jean Leclerc proposed the formation of an International committee of specialists to correct and enlarge Moréri. What scholars suggested, entrepreneurs put into practice. Zedler’s Lexikon and the Encyclopédie were produced by teams of contributors (at least 135 of them in the case of Diderot’s enterprise)"
• komercjalizacja wiedzy, subskrypcje: "Many of the famous encyclopaedias of the eighteenth century - Pivati’s NUOVO dizionario scientifico in Venice, Zedler’s Lexicon in Leipzig, the French Encyclopédie - were published by subscription. John Harris’s Lexicon technicum (1704), published by a syndicate of ten booksellers or ‘undertakers’, listed nearly 900 subscribers. The two best-known British encyclopaedias of the time, Chambers’s and the Britannica" tak samo
• la fureur des dictionnaires (Melchior Grimm): Durey de Noinville, Dictionary of Dictionaries, 1758
• rozkwit gatunków encyklopedycznych: ‘atlas’, ‘axiomata’, ‘breviat’ (or summary), ‘castle’, ‘catalogue’, ‘commonplaces’, ‘compendium’, ‘corpus’, ‘dictionary’ (or lexicon), ‘directory’ ‘encyclopaedia’, ‘epitome’, ‘flowers’ (flores, polyanthea, anthologies), ‘forest’ (silva), ‘garden’, ‘glossary’, ‘gold mine’ (aurofodina, Drexel, 1638), ‘guide’, ‘handbook’ (following the classical tradition of the enchiridion and the manuale), ‘inventory’, ‘itinerary’, ‘key’ (clavis), ‘library’, ‘marrow’ (medulla), ‘mirror’ (speculum), ‘promptuarium’, recueil, ‘repertory’, ‘summary’, ‘theatre’, ‘treasury’, ‘tree’ and ‘vade mecum’
• "Only a tiny proportion of the population could afford to subscribe to a folio encyclopaedia or even to a journal."

Przykłady

• 1701 - Fra Vincenzo Coronelli, Biblioteca Universale, o sia Gran Dizionario Storico, Geografico, Antico, Moderno, Naturale, Poetico, Cronologico, Genealogico, Matematico, Politico, Botanico, Medico, Chimico, Giuridico, Filosofico, Teologico, e Biblico: opublikował 7 z 45 tomów
• 1727 - Ephraim Chambers, Cyclopædia; or, A Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, 2 vols
  • "an attempt to explicate the mysteries of hundreds of trades when Britain was gearing up for the Industrial Revolution."
  • "Cyclopædia; or, An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences; Containing the Definitions of the Terms, and Accounts of the Things Signify’d Thereby, in the Several Arts, Both Liberal and Mechanical, and the Several Sciences, Human and Divine: The Figures, Kinds, Properties, Productions, Preparations, and Uses, of Things Natural and Artificial; the Rise, Progress, and State of Things Ecclesiastical, Civil, Military, and Commercial: With the Several Systems, Sects, Opinions, &c. among Philosophers, Divines, Mathematicians, Physicians, Antiquaries, Criticks, &c.: The Whole Intended as a Course of Antient and Modern Learning: Compiled from the Best Authors, Dictionaries, Journals, Memoirs, Transactions, Ephemerides, &c. in Several Languages."
• 1731-1750 - Johann Heinrich Zedler, Grosses vollständiges Universal-Lexicon aller Wissenschaften und Künste: 64 tomy, 64,309 strony
• 1745 - Benedykt Chmielowski, Nowe Ateny, first encyclopaedia in Polish

Encyklopedia Francuska

• początkowo miał to być przekład Chambersa
• 1751-1766: Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, par une société de gens de lettres
• publikacja: Paris, 1751–72; index 1780
• ilość tomów: 28 (17 of text, 11 of illustrations) + 5 vols. supplement
• ilość stron: 18,000
• ilość haseł: 71,818
• ilość ilustracji: 2,885
• ilość słów 20 million
• format: 15½″ × 9½″ (39.5 × 24.5 cm)
• powierzchnia: 18,600 ft 2 (1,742 m 2 )
• waga: 246 lb. (112 kg)
• cena: 280 livres to subscribers; cena 1000 livrów, 4000 subskrybentów; do 1789 sprzedane 25 000 egz. reprintów i in folio
• Denis Diderot (1713–84) and Jean le Rond d’Alembert (1717–83)
• porządek: alphabetical, from a to Zzuéné
• Diderot w Wstępie
  • "nothing less than the basic facts and the basic principles of all knowledge; it was to be a war machine of the thought and opinion of the Enlightenment."
  • "an adjustment of the rationalist spirit of Descartes to the empiricism of Locke and Newton—a fusion of traditions which lies at the foundation of the Encyclopedia"
• "It is not merely one of the world’s great reference books but one of the towering monuments of European intellectual history—even one of the most influential works in world literature."
• Enc. Fr. a Britannika: "The Encyclopédie was a product of radical Enlightenment philosophy, and its authors sought to overturn conventional pieties. British encyclopedists, conversely, sought to consolidate the received learning of the ages and pass it on to the next generation."

Encyclopædia Britannica

• 1768–71 - Encyclopædia Britannica; or, A Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, Compiled upon a New Plan: In Which the Different Sciences and Arts are Digested into Distinct Treatises or Systems; and the Various Technical Terms, &c. Are Explained
• redaktor: William Smellie (1740–95)
• porządek:
  • Alphabetical, Aa to zygophyllum,
  • with eighteen very long “treatises”: agriculture, algebra, anatomy, arithmetic, astronomy, bookkeeping, botany, chemistry, farriery (caring for horses), geometry, law, medicine, metaphysics, midwifery, moral philosophy, music, navigation, and surgery.
• brak haseł biograficznych
• publikacja: First in 100 weekly parts beginning in January 1768, then in three volumes, Edinburgh: Printed for A. Bell and C. Macfarquhar and sold by Colin Macfarquhar at this printing-office, Nicolson-street, 1771
• tomy: 3
• strony: 2,382
• artykuły: 18,600
• słowa: 2.6 million
• format:10″ × 8″ (25.4 × 20.3 cm)
• powierzchnia: 1,314 ft 2 (122.8m 2 )
• waga: 13¾ lb. (6.3kg)
• cena: £2 10s. (£3 7s. on fine paper)
• "Unlike the Encyclopédie , the Britannica is conventional in its religious beliefs."

Historia w Chinach

Dynastia Ming (XIV-XVII)

• 1368-1644 - 139 znanych encyklopedii
• XV w. - Yongle dadian - 2,000 contributors, 10,000 volumes, making it too expensive to print and so difficult to preserve (less than 4 per cent of it has survived)

Dynastia Qing (XVII-XX)

• celestial phenomena; geography; emperors; human nature and conduct; government; rites; music; law; officialdom; ranks of nobility; military affairs; domestic economy; property; clothing; vehicles; tools; food; utensils; crafts; chess; Daoism; Buddhism; spirits; medicine; natural history
• 1726 - Qinding Gujin tusbu jicheng, more than 750,000 pages, making it in all probability the longest printed book in the world.
• 1772-1780 - Siku Quanshu, a selection of some 3,500 books which were to be preserved in manuscript copies, lodged in seven different places
• ułożone tematycznie, pomagały w pisaniu egzaminów, użytek ograniczony do kręgu mandarynów

Bibliografia

1. R. Barthes, Tablice «Encyklopedii», w: jego, Stopień zero pisania, przez. K. Kot, W-wa 2009.
2. Bauer, W. (1966) The Encyclopaedia in China’, Cahiers d’Histoire Moderne 9, pp. 665–91.
3. Annie Becq, L'encyclopédisme
4. Peter Burke, Social History of Knowledge From Gutenberg to Diderot, Polity Press: Cambridge 2008.
5. Peter Burke, (2012) A Social History of Knowledge,
6. Peter Burke (2012) A Social History of Knowledge, Volume II: From the Encyclopédie to Wikipedia. Cambridge: Polity Press.
7. Dierse, U. (1977) Enzyklopädie. Bonn.
8. Eybl, F. et al. (eds, 1995) Enzyklopädien der fruhen Neuzeit. Tubingen.
9. Jack Goody, Poskromienie myśli nieoswojonej, przeł. M. Szuster, Warszawa 2011. (listy początek historii encyklopedii, s. 103)
10. Kafker, F. A. (ed., 1981) Notable Encyclopaedias. Oxford.
11. Jack Lynch, You could look it up. The reference shelf from ancient Babylon to Wikipedia, Bloomsbury Press: New York 2016.
12. Schaer, R. (ed., 1996) Tous les sapoirs du monde; encyclopédies et bibliothéques, de Sumer au xxie siécle.
13. Switzer, R. (1967) ‘America in the Encyclopédie’, Studies on Voltaire 58, pp. 1481–99 (błędy)
14. Françoise Tilkin, L'encyclopédisme
15. J. M. Wells, The Circle of Knowledge (1966)
16. Woods, J. M. (1987) ‘Das “Gelahrte Frauenzimmer” und die deutsche Frauenlexika 1631–1743’, In Res Publica Litteraria, ed. Sebastian Neumeister and Conrad Wiedemann, 2 vols (Wiesbaden), pp. 577–88. (fala encyklopedii na użytek kobiet)