Anthony Dirk Moses

The problems of Genocide

• Rewizja pojęcie ludobójstwa: 'the concept of genocide is part of the problem of civilian destruction rather than its solution.'
• Pojęcie ludobójstwa odwraca uwagę od innych form zabijania ludności cywilnej: 'Taking the nor-mative perspective of civilian immunity from military attack that international law and norms ostensibly prioritize, this book argues that their implicit hierarchy, atop which sits genocide as the “crime of crimes,” blinds us to other types of humanly caused civilian death, like bombing cities and the “collateral damage” of missile and drone strikes, blockades, and sanctions.1In other words, talk of genocide functions ideologically to detract attention from systematic violence against civilians perpetrated by governments, including Western ones.'
• Metodologia. Opinia publiczna pyta o to co szokuje, w tej książce pyta się o to, kto definiuje, co jest szokujące, kto ustala ramy dyskursu: 'They ask: what shocks our civilized con-sciences today? Instead, we ask: who defines these categories? From which vista does “humanity” look out across the global landscape of transgression? According to what hierarchy of values and assumptions does it orient its conscience, and according to what constellation in the history of emotions does it feel this shock? What are the cultural and geopolitical processes that constitute their contested meanings? Who has the ability to arrogate to themselves the right to incarnate and def i ne humanity and civilized conscience? Which actions and processes are screened out by setting an upper level of transgression that “shocks the conscience”? In sum: how is the greatest political evil named and defined?'

Problem z pojęciem ludobójstwa

• Cywile nie są już niewinni: 'To insist on the tidy distinction between combatants and civilians is outmoded, they conclude.'
• Ludobójstwo jako broń polityczna, oskarżenie o ludobójstwo: 'As is so common in international relations, accusing geopolitical rivals of genocide is politically expedient.'
• Saudi Arabia zabija tysiące cywili w Jemenie: 'Saudi Arabia, was killing thousands of civilians in its relentless bombing of Yemen, or that its blockade of the country’s main port town condemned 85,000 children to death by starvation'
• Niechęć do używania pojęcia ludobójstwa: 'Such is the genocide concept’s stigmatic aura that states are reluctant to name conflicts as genocide if they are disinclined to intervene, if their clients are the perpetrators, if their enemies’ clients are the victims, or if it is otherwise diplomatically inconvenient.'
• Problem sprowadza się do odróżnienia wojny i ludobójstwo: 'This political problem is founded on a conceptual one: distinguishing genocide from noninternational armed conflict (civil war: rebellion, insurgency, and belligerency) and international armed conflict (interstate war).'
• Wojna ludobójstwo prosta różnica: 'armed conflict suggests belligerent symmetry whereas genocide is imagined as asymmetrical violence against the civilian members of ethnic groups'
• W Rwandzie nie było podwójnego ludobójstwa ani walki polityczne i tylko ludobójstwo Tutsi: 'To ensure that the Hutu killed by Hutu extremists are downgraded in status, the Rwandan government pushed through a UN resolution in 2018 that changed the title of the UN commemoration day from “International Day of Reflection on the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda” to “International Day of Reflection on the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda.”'
• Proponuję wprowadzić z przestępstwo permanent security: 'I suggest in this book that the genocide concept should be replaced with the more general crime of “permanent security.”'
• Użycie pojęcia ludobójstwa do Afrykańczyków rok 1952?: 'All sides alleged genocide during the partition of India in 1947, and it featured four years later in the African-American Civil Rights Congress petition to the UN, “We Charge Genocide: The Crime of Government Against the Negro People.”'
• Lemkin zignorował nowinkę techniczną bombardowania z powietrza: 'Lemkin and his supporters ignored the international debate since the 1920s about the efficacy of a new technology with terrifying potential: aerial warfare. The strategic bombing of civilian populations was intended to destroy enemy industrial capacity and morale, meaning that the enemy was conceptualized as a national whole, thereby eliding the distinction between civilians and combatants.'
• Istota ludobójstwa niewinne osoby są atakowane za to kim są a nie co robią: 'The ethnic definition of genocide is compounded by its conceptualization as an irrational hate crime: innocent, blameless victims are attacked for racial rather than for political reasons – for who they are, not for what they (or members of the group) have done.'
• Motywacje zawsze są szczytne: 'No state or para-state admits a hateful motivation, of course. Instead, they claim that they kill and deport opponents who are threatening and dangerous – for defensive, political reasons. Even the Nazis did so.'
• 'Security and racial animus intersect, as I demonstrate in this book.'
• Ludobójstwo jest uznawane za działanie niesymetryczne, a wojna za działanie symetryczne : 'whereas genocide is understood as asymmetrical warfare against a passive ethnic group or people who are thus deemed to be innocent, civil war and insurgency are armed conflicts in which all parties possess agency and are thus not entirely blameless for violence that befalls them. In doing so, this distinction effectively criminalizes entire groups, although the vast majority of its members will be noncombatants.'
• Zabójstwo masowe na bazie politycznej są uważane za mniej drastyczne niż na bazie: 'Politically rather than racially defined victims are effectively assigned a lower status in the hierarchy of criminality.'
• Prowadzi to do trywializacji II w masowych bombardowań lotniczych, często większych niż ludobójstwa: 'trivialize war crimes and crimes against humanity, but also to exclude the aerial bombing of civilians, which likewise violates the principle of distinction, and is often deadlier.'
• W latach 50. USA zabiło 1/5 populacji Korei Północnej: 'Few recall that the US relentlessly bombed North Korean cities and transport infrastructure during the war on the Korean peninsula between 1950 and 1953, killing over 20 percent of the population, leading one authority to characterize the campaign as genocidal.'
• Ujęcie ludobójstwa zezwala na zabijanie w imię racji stanu: 'depoliticizing effect of the genocide concept enables states to legally kill civilians in the name of raison d’etat'
• Klucz ludobójstwa prowadzić do selektywnego wyboru przykładów masowych mordów, niektóre zostają pominięte: 'For example, why are the cases of Biafra and East Pakistan routinely excluded from genocide studies but Cambodia included, let alone the almost unimaginable mortality of the Chinese Great Leap Forward? Most civilian destruction in the second half of the twentieth century is excluded by fixating on genocide as a nonpolitical crime of racial hatred.'

Język transgresji

• language of transgression: 'The language of transgression determines the upper threshold of mass criminality. It is the matrix of words and concepts used to define and police that threshold. Actions that transgress this threshold “shock the conscience of mankind,” to use the common phrase.'
• USA Japonia nie podpisały konwencji haskich o zbrodniach przeciwko ludzkości ponieważ nie  istnieje ich zdaniem jedna ustalona ludzkość i prawa człowieka: 'crimes against humanity.103Only the American and Japanese objection to the term – because there was “no f i xed and universal standard of humanity” embedded in a treaty – excluded crimes against humanity from postwar trial indictments.'
• Mówienie o szokowaniu świadomości cywilizowanej to kolonializm: 'The language of “shocking” civilized “conscience” was ubiquitous in the Western press in relation to Ottoman and Russian empires in the nineteenth century, to slavery and the excesses of their own or others’ empires – like Belgian King Leopold II’s Congo – when Europeans exploited and murdered non-Europeans, thereby violating Western civiliza-tional norms. It was, and remains, an Orientalist idiom of humanitarian empire, a colonialism shorn of scandalous excesses, but colonialism all the same.'
• Tego rodzaju dyskurs był głuchy na niektóre przypadki masowych morderstw: 'This discourse was largely deaf to the millions of Muslim refugees caused by the Russian conquest of the Caucasus, the successive national liberations of the Christian Balkan states in the nineteenth century, and during and after the Balkans Wars of 1912–1913.'
• 'As a Marxist, he sought to catalogue the historical semantics of words like class, art, industry, and democracy'

Trwałe bezpieczeństwo

• Cel niniejszej książki: 'My questions, then, are not when genocide was authentically defined or whether events qualify as genocide, but how its criteria were determined and whose interests they served. How and why was the “truth” – rather than the violent reality – of genocide constructed?'
• Zamiast ludobójstwa proponuję pojęcie trwałego bezpieczeństwa: 'Genocide, like war crimes and crimes against humanity, obscures a deeper source of transgression better covered by the notion of permanent security. Despite its possibly anodyne connotations, permanent security is a deeply utopian and sinister imperative that has not been satisfactorily examined by the extensive security studies literature.'
• Dlaczego zabijał żydowskie dzieci?: 'When asked about murdering Jewish children, he maintained that they would grow up to resist the occupation when they understood that Germans had murdered their parents'
• Ponieważ szukał trwałego bezpieczeństwa: 'Ohlendorf explained that the Germans sought more than military security: their aim was what he called “permanent security.”'
• Hitler szukał poczucia trwałego bezpieczeństwa: 'In this regard, Hitler set the tone in a speech after the conquest of Poland in October 1939. He declared that German policy should include, among other measures, “The pacif i cation (Befriedung) of the entire area in the sense of producing tenable peace and order,” and “the absolute guarantee of security not only of imperial territory but of the entire sphere of interest.” In the rest of the speech, he spoke at length about the “feeling of security” (Gefühl der Sicherheit) that would attend the ethnic reordering of the continent when minorities were eliminated by population transfer, including “the attempt to order and regulate the Jewish problem.”124'
• Nowa struktura czasowa: 'This security imagination – permanent security – entailed a radically new temporal structure. It was concerned not only with eliminating immediate threats but also with future threats.'

Nieliberalne trwałe bezpieczeństwo

• Illiberal Permanent Security: 'This modality entails preventative killing of presumed future threats to a particular ethnos, nation, or religion, in a bounded “territoriality.”'
• Przykłady: 'targeting of political and ethnic groups, like communists in Latin America and Indonesia, or national minor-ities in countless cases. The Nazi genocide of Jews – the Holocaust – is the most notorious case of illiberal permanent security'
• Zabijanie dzieci: 'Killing children as future threats is a sure sign of illiberal permanent security aspirations. The Biblical book of Exodus recounts how the Egyptian pharaoh ordered midwives to drown Hebrew baby boys to weaken the captive Jewish people.'
• Amerykańscy osadnicy mordują dzieci : 'North American settlers justified murdering Indian children with the argument that “nits make lice.'

Liberalne trwałe bezpieczeństwo

• Trwałe bezpieczeństwo nieliberalne opiera się na terytorialnosci, a liberalne na ludzkości jako całości: 'Whereas illiberal permanent security aspires to a bounded territoriality, the liberal version envisions the world as the territory to be secured in the name of “humanity.”'
• Turcy jako zagrożenie dla całej ludzkości: 'W. E. Gladstone, who in his famous pamphlet, The Bulgarian Horrors (1876), attacking the Ottoman repression of a Bulgarian uprising, demonized the Turks as a particularly dangerous “racial” type of Muslim and “the one great anti-human specimen of humanity.”'
• Wiktymizacja cywili: 'Civilian victimization is a military strategy chosen by political or military elites that targets and kills noncombatants intentionally or which fails to discriminate between combatants and noncombatants and thus kills large numbers of the latter.'
• Czym jest trwałe bezpieczeństwo: 'permanent security is a praxis in which human groups – civilians – are targeted collectively and preventatively as security threats.'
• Czym jest trwałe bezpieczeństwo: 'permanent security is an impossible and immoral aspiration that drives states and para-states to kill innocent people in the name of ending vulnerability by imposing their regime – forever'
• Cel książki: 'This book is a plea against the civilian destruction caused by the aspiration for permanent security: the illegitimacy of killing civilians for the sake of a state, whether in the name of an ethnos or humanity (or both) that it claims to defend'
• Lemkim chcąc się przypodobać USA sformułował swoją definicję ludobójstwa taka tak by obejmowała jedynie zabójstwa na podstawie narodowości i i nie uwzględniać motywacji poza politycznej: 'Chapter 10, I show how Lemkin and Hannah Arendt did the bidding of their adopted home, the US, by defining genocide in terms of the Holocaust and by distinguishing the Holocaust from other forms of mass violence by its nonpolitical motivation of irrational race hatred'
• Lemkin i Arendt dostarczyli argumentów dla uzasadnienia liberalnego permanentnego bezpieczeństwa czyli w szczególności masakry rdzenny ludów Ameryki i ogólnie kolonizacji: 'Both figures furnished the arguments that justified liberal permanent security – that is, the West’s settler colonial and imperial conquest of the world – by distinguishing the Holocaust from its imperial context.'
• Zimnowojenna koncentracja na Holokauście: 'their Cold War centralization of the Holocaust'
• Kluczowe sformułowania szokuje ludzkie sumienie i jest potępiane przez cywilizowany świat: 'Genocide “shocks the conscience of mankind” and is condemned by the “civilized world,” declared the UN General Assembly in 1946'

"Misja cywilizacyjna" i jej koszta

• Imperium otomański cesarstwo chińskie także miały misje cywilizacyjną: 'The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–1922) and Chinese Qing Dynasty (1644–1912) also expanded their holdings based on a hierarchy between their civilized core and uncivilized peripheral peoples. They too possessed “civilizing missions.”'
• Cywilizacja została ograniczona do rozwoju ekonomicznego tylko przez niektórych również edukacji i wsparcia dla innych: 'Civilization was restricted to economic development for some, and was extended to education and “uplift” for others.'
• Sepulveda opozycja do las casa: Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda (1494–1573)
• Hiszpania musi zatrzymać barbarzyństwo Amerydian: sodomie ofiary z ludzi, kanibalizm, wzajemne wybijany się: 'The legitimacy of Spanish arms, argued Sepúlveda, lay in its purpose as a humanitarian intervention, to use today’s term: to prevent the Amerindians’ scandalous violations of natural law: idolatry, sodomy, human sacrifice, cannibalism, and internecine warfare.'
• Rdzeni rdzenni Amerykanie (Amerydianie) nie kierują się rozumem tylko emocjami dlatego są naturalnymi niewolnikami: 'The Amerindians were not guided by reason, he declared, but by passion, rendering them children and natural slaves.'
• Tocqueville potępia z ludobójstwa Amerykanów ale usprawiedliwia ludobójstwa Francuzów w Algieria: 'French writer Alexis De Tocqueville echoed Las Casas in condemning the Spanish for committing “unparalleled atrocities which bring an indelible shame upon themselves” while he justif i ed the French conquest of Algeria.16Intrinsic to this debate was mutual observation and'
• Okrucieństwa rdzennych ludów są uzasadnieniem kolonizacji: 'Indian barbarism rather than the British East India Company’s incre-mental conquest and exploitation of the subcontinent was the scandal. Two decades later, American colonists would mythologize massacres of settlers by “savage Indians” to legitimate their anti-British and murderous anti-indigenous campaigns. Their Declaration of Independence in 1776 condemned King George III for exciting “insurrections” by “the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions.'
• Dwuznaczna rola oświecenia w kwestii kolonizacji: 'The keywords of the Enlightenment – humanity and civilization – pointed in two directions. On the one hand, some Enlightenment figures like Denis Diderot (1713–1784), Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), and Johan Gottfried Herder (1733–1803) advocated the values of cultural diversity and human equality to attack empire as systems of domination and exploitation. Theirs was an “enlightenment anti-imperialism,” in the words of one scholar, the first sustained intellectual opposition to imperialism. On the other hand, this language signalled human hierarchy, both within European countries and in relation to their colonial possessions and geopolitical rivals. It expressed a deep-seated commitment to highly Eurocentric, and in many cases essentially racist, conceptions of state formation and international order.'
• Kant, krytyk niewolnictwa: 'Few were the critics like Kant who ironically invoked civilization to suggest that it made Europeans the more efficient barbarians.'
• Deklaracje prawników Leopolda w sprawie Kongo: 'All the Powers exercising sovereign rights or influence in the aforesaid territories bind themselves to watch over the preservation of the native tribes, and to care for the improvement of the conditions of their moral and material well-being, and to help in suppressing slavery, and especially the slave trade. They shall, without distinction of creed or nation, protect and favour all religious, scientific or charitable institutions and undertakings created and organized for the above ends, or which aim at instructing the natives and bringing home to them the blessings of civilization.153'
• Institut Colonial International (ICI), 1894, Bruksela: 'It determined to place colonialism on a scientific footing by exchanging and publishing expert opinion on the standard issues of humanitarian colonial reform: economic development, labor supply, the alcohol and opium trade, and sanitation.'
• Europejskie mocarstwa dzieliły się Afryką pod pretekstem walki z niewolnictwem: 'On the pretext of stamping out slavery, the French established a protectorate in Tunisia in 1881 and the British set up the British Central Africa Protectorate in 1889, having already expanded into Egypt, Sudan, and East Africa – Lagos was annexed already in 1861 – on humanitarian pretexts. European powers carved up Africa in the name of ending slavery and promoting “ordered liberty.”161'
• Praca przymusowa w Kongo Leopolda doprowadziła do ludobójstwa: 'forced labor from Africans with the local gendarmes, the notoriously brutal Force Publique. Violating the Berlin Act in every respect, Leopold’s Congo led to the deaths of millions of Congolese'
• Leopold inspirował się Hiszpanami i holendrami: 'In fact, Leopold had studied and applied Spanish and Dutch models of forced plantation labor in their colonies, although he realized the need to present his scheme in philanthropic terms to gain international approval.163'
• Morel używa fotografii żeby opowiedzieć o ludobójstwie w Kongo: 'E. D. Morel (1873–1924), a founder of the Congo Reform Movement in 1904, utilized wrenching photographs of floggings and mutilations in his books on the subject, while large evangelical audiences in Great Britain beheld such images in lantern slide shows'
• 'Arthur Conan Doyle (1859–1930), author of the Sherlock Holmes novels, lent his pen to the campaign in Crime of the Congo (1909): 'the sack of a country, the spoliation of a nation, the greatest crime in all history.'
• 1833, De Toqueville że Francuzi są bardziej barbarzyńcy niż Afrykanie, ale ale nadal wierzy w misję cywilizacyjną Francji: 'For my part,” he concluded, “I returned from Africa with the distressing notion that we are now fighting far more barbarously than the Arabs themselves. For the present, it is on their side that one meets with civilization.'
• Rudyard Kipling, The White Man’s Burden” (1899): 'savage wars of peace'
• Można ich zniszczyć, bo są słabi: 'Europeans usually ascribed the apparent inevitability of extinction to the perceived weakness of people they called “natives,” especially to disease and fertility decline. They were also certain that the value of their own civilization was sufficiently great to justify the destruction of the non-European ones, howsoever caused.'
• Anglicy mają to do siebie że wyniszczają kolejne rasy, taki ich urok: 'future US president, Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919), distinguished the English Teuton from the Spanish and French by the nature of his ruthless nation building. “The English had exterminated or assimilated the Celts of Britain, and they substantially repeated the process with the Indians of America.”'
• '1927, the English soldier, collector, and archaeologist, George Augustus Henry Lane Pitt-Rivers (1890–1966)': 'a “superior race” overwhelmed an inferior one, (...) there should be no reason for members of a superior race to regret the gradual extinction of an inferior race, if only the future enrichment and welfare of the world is considered.'
• Zachodnia cywilizacja popełniła największą zbrodnie w historii, zniszczyła pół cywilizacji ludzkiej: 'Claude Levi-Strauss, concurred, regretting that Western civilization had “committed a kind of unpardonable sin,” in his “opinion the greatest sin ever committed in the history of humanity, which is to have destroyed or attempted to destroy half of the richness of humankind.”'
• Istota imperium to dążenie do trwałego bezpieczeństwa: 'The empire is created to ensure permanent security: that never again will it be dominated by another. The impulse for empire – the desire for invulnerability – emanates from previous feelings of abjection. Empire is both a security and a compensation for past humiliations.'
• Valdimir Jabotinsky, 1920, kolonizatorzy Ameryki mieli wysokie standardy moralne, tylko uparci tubylcy nie chcieli się podzielić ziemią po dobroci: 'those “great explorers,” the English, Scots and Dutch who were the f i rst real pioneers of North America were people possessed of a very high ethical standard; people who not only wished to leave the redskins at peace but could also pity a f l y; people who in all sincerity and innocence believed that in those virgin forests and vast plains ample space was available for both the white and red man. But the native resisted both barbarian and civilized settler with the same degree of cruelty.61'
• zakończenie kolonializmu wymaga wywłaszczenia lokalej elity, nie prostego wyrzucenia osadników: 'The colonial system needed to be transformed by expropriating the collaborating indigenous bourgeoisie, rather than simply expelling settlers.'
• Rosja: 'White forces, for instance, executed tens of thousands of Jews, Balts, Chinese and communists because they were seen as “incorrigible.”'

Hołodomor

• Hołodomor, ludobójstwo czy wypadek: 'Worse still was the famine of 1931–1933, which some observers, particu-larly Ukrainian nationalists, consider a genocidal contrivance rather than the unintended consequence of a misguided policy – intense debate remains around the question.'
• Policja nie pozwalała uciec przed głodem: 'The military and police force were stationed to prevent Ukrainian and North Caucasian peasants leaving their areas, fating them to starvation'
• Umarło 3 miliony Ukraińców a w sumie 5 albo 6 milionów: 'Around three million Ukrainians died from hunger – of the between f i ve and six million Soviet famine fatalities over all –'

Permanent security

• cztery elementy permanent security
  • 'First, groups are reified as the premise for accusations of collective guilt: minorities and social classes as internally homogeneous historical actors with collective agency and interchangeable parts.'
    • 'an implicit collective guilt claim by failing to distinguish between combatants and noncombatants'
  • 'The second element is preemption. Groups can be targeted not for what its members have done but for what some of them might do.'
  • 'The third element is thus paranoia. Permanent security is governed more by fantastical security imperatives – paranoid threat assessments – than by the aesthetic of racial purity as implied by the Holocaust archetype.'
    • 'The paranoia often emanates from traumatic and humiliating experience of loss and occupation; it is not forgotten, but nurtured, particularly in nationalist circles, as a motivating source for revenge and redemption.'
    • Sprawca ludobójstwa z drugiej strony barykady widziany: 'Historians sympathetic to the Ottoman rulers during World War I, for example, do not regard Talaat Pasher, Enver Pasher, and their associates as cruel and savage dictators who ruthlessly exploited a long-sought opportunity for a much-desired genocide. Rather, they see them “as desperate, frightened, unsophisticated men struggling to keep their nation afloat in a crisis far graver than they had anticipated when they first entered the war ... reacting to events rather than creating them, and not fully realizing the extent of the horrors they had set in motion in ‘Turkish Armenia’ until they were too deeply committed to withdraw.”'
  • 'The element of preemption means that groups are attacked before its members can subvert the state.'
• Hitler w Mein Kampf inspiruje się Brytyjczykami: 'no nation has more carefully prepared its economic conquest with the sword with greater brutality and defended it later on more ruthlessly than the British.”'

Bibliografia

• A. Dirk Moses, The problems of Genocide. Permanent Security and the Language of Transgression-Cambridge University Press (2021)
• Colonial Discourse/Postcolonial Theory, ed. Francis Barker, Peter Hulme, and Margaret Iversen (Manchester: University of Manchester Press, 1994)
• Rudyard Kipling, “The White Man’s Burden: The United States and the Philippine Islands,” in The Norton Anthology of English Literature, ed. Stephen Greenblatt, Carol T. Christ, and Deidre Shauna Lynch, 2 Vols. 8th ed. (New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 2006)
• Arthur Conan Doyle, The Crime of the Congo (New York: Doubleday, Page, and Co, 1909)
• Helen M. Kinsella, The Image before the Weapon: A Critical History of the Distinction between Combatant and Civilian (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2011) (Problem odróżnienia cywilnych od żołnierzy)
• Anton Weiss-Wendt, A Rhetorical Crime: Genocide in the Geopolitical Discourse of the Cold War (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2018).
• Bruce Cumings, The Korean War: A History (New York: Random Hose, 2010), 1
• Charlotte Epstein, The Power of Words in International Relations: Birth of an Anti-Whaling Discourse (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2008) (bibliografia, Pragmatyka językowa, konstruktywizm)
• Raymond Williams, Keywords (Historia kluczowych pojęć historii)
• H. L. Wesseling, Divide and Rule: The Partition of Africa, 1880–1914 (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1996).
• E. D. Morel, Red Rubber: The Story of the Rubber Slave Trade Which Flourished on the Congo for Twenty Years, 1890–1910, new rev. ed. (London: The National Labour Press, 1919)
• Albert Memmi, The Colonizer and the Colonized, intro. Jean-Paul Sartre (Boston: Beacon Press, [1957] 1965)
• Émile Banning, Africa and the Brussels Geographical Conference, trans. Henry Richard Major (London: S. Low. Marston, Searle & Rivington, 1877 (General Act of the Berlin Conference)

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