Tłum

• Shouting fire in a crowded theater
• współczesne genocydy: promocje w sklepach, Black Friday sales

John Fruin

• "When crowd density equals the plan area of the human body, individual control is lost, as one becomes an involuntary part of the mass. At occupancies of about 7 persons per square meter the crowd becomes almost a fluid mass. Shock waves can be propagated through the mass sufficient to lift people off of their feet and propel them distances of 3 m (10 ft) or more. People may be literally lifted out of their shoes, and have clothing torn off. Intense crowd pressures, exacerbated by anxiety, make it difficult to breathe. The heat and thermal insulation of surrounding bodies cause some to be weakened and faint. Access to those who fall is impossible. Removal of those in distress can only be accomplished by lifting them up and passing them overhead to the exterior of the crowd."
• "[e]vidence of bent steel railings after several fatal crowd incidents" shows that dense crowds can exert forces of more than 1,000 pounds at a time.'

Tracy Hresko Pearl

• 'These "crowd crush" incidents, however, are extremely underreported and rarely litigated, masking the seriousness of this issue and making it difficult for the few victims who pursue legal recourse to recover damages.'
• 'Black Friday sales, music concerts, sporting events, and large festivals, as on subway platforms and in casino parking lots.'
• 'The United States has an unusually high number of crowd crush incidents for a country in the developed world'

Wikipedia

• "When a body of people reaches or exceeds the density of four to five people per square metre (0.37 to 0.46/sq ft), the pressure on each individual can cause the crowd to collapse in on itself, or become so densely packed that individuals are crushed and asphyxiated. At this density, too, a crowd can start to act like a fluid, sweeping individuals around without their volition. Such incidents are invariably the product of failures in organizations, and most major crowd disasters can be prevented by simple crowd management strategies.[1] Such incidents can occur at large gatherings such as sporting, commercial, social, or religious events, though the critical factor is crowd density rather than crowd size. It is estimated that some 66,000 people were injured in crowd collapse and crush incidents between 1992 and 2002, though crowd scientists believe this to be a gross underestimate. It is also believed that current legislation offers inadequate protection against such events being allowed to happen." Crowd collapses and crushes, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowd_collapses_and_crushes

Bibliografia

• Fruin, John (January 2002) [First presented March 1993]. The Causes and Prevention of Crowd Disasters (PDF). First International Conference on Engineering for Crowd Safety (crowdsafe.com ed.).
• Pearl, Tracy Hresko (2015). "Crowd Crush: How the Law Leaves American Crowds Unprotected". Kentucky Law Journal. 104 (1). Article 4.